The Purpose Of Theory In International Relations Philosophy Essay

The Purpose Of Theory In International Relations Philosophy Essay International Relations (IR) theory aims to provide a conceptual framework upon which international relations can be analyzed. Ole Holsti describes international relations theories act as a pair of colored sunglasses, allowing the wearer to see only the salient events relevant to the theory. An adherent of realism may completely disregard an event that a constructivist might pounce upon as crucial, and vice versa. Robert Coxs ideas on the purpose of theory in International Relations, is not a search to find the truth but it is a tool to understand the world as it is, and to change it through the power of critique. According to Robert Cox, theory has two purposes: one of them is the problem-solving purpose that is synchronic which deals with the givens and tries to manage the smooth functioning of the system. The other kind of theory is the critical theory, and the purpose is to become aware of the situations not chosen by one, and to establish an emancipatory perspective. Once looked from the Coxian lens, it is clear that the discipline of international relations were from the very beginning loyal to this kind of purpose in theorizing, i.e., the smooth working of the system. As Robert Cox articulates, Theory is always for someone and for some purpose; this statement reflects the context in which the theory is being analyzed. Robert Cox says in one of his interview, What I meant is that there is no theory for itself; theory is always for someone, for some purpose. There is no neutral theory concerning human affairs, no theory of universal validity. Theory derives from practice and experience, and experience is related to time and place. Theory is a part of history. It addresses the problematic of the world of its time and place. An inquirer has to aim to place himself above the historical circumstances in which a theory is propounded. Cox has analyzed various theories and he critiques the earlier theories for their absolutism. He presents three challenges to previously established theories of IR.   Firstly, he appreciates the holistic intent behind both neorealism and world systems theory but warns against drawing conclusions which may detract from true formulation of a holistic approach.   Secondly, the state and social forces ought to be considered jointly in order to understand the route created by historical processes.   Finally, he argues for an empirical-historical methodology that accommodates and explains change more effectively than neorealists historical positivism. All theories derive from a perspective which determines their purpose.   By that Cox means all theories are colored by the time, place, and culture which produced them.   Cox identifies two strains of theorizing, the first, problem-solving theory, employs the existing theoretical framework and political conditions in order to isolate and address issues.   Conversely, critical theory is reflective, rejecting the false premise of a fixed social and political order, which Cox asserts is a convenience of method that constitutes an ideological bias in favor of the status quo.   If the purpose of political and social inquiry is indeed to effect change, critical theory is best suited towards that mandate, as a guide to strategic action cognizant of the history and ideology which inevitably impacts theory.   Problem-solving theory restricts the theorist into (perhaps inadvertently) perpetuating the status quo.   That being said, Cox acknowledges (in accordance with his belief tha t theory belongs to its historical climate) that there can be a time and place for problem-solving theory. Problem solving takes the world as it is and focuses on correcting certain dysfunctions, certain specific problems. Critical theory is concerned with how the world, that is all the conditions that problem solving theory takes as the given framework, may be changing. Because problem solving theory has to take the basic existing power relationships as given, it will be biased towards perpetuating those relationships, thus tending to make the existing order hegemonic. What critical theory does is question these very structural conditions that are tacit assumptions for problem-solving theory, to ask whom and which purposes such theory serves. It looks at the facts that problem-solving theory presents from the inside, that is, as they are experienced by actors in a context which also consists of power relations. Critical theory thus historicizes world orders by uncovering the purposes problem solving theories within such an order serve to uphold. By uncovering the contingency of an existing world order, one can then proceed to think about different world orders. It is more marginal than problem solving theory since it does not comfortably provide policy recommendations to those in power. The strength of problem-solving theory relies in its ability to fix limits or parameters to a problem area, and to reduce the statement of a particular problem to a limited number of variables which are amenable to rather close and clear examination. The ceteris paribus assumption, the assumption that other things can be ignored, upon which problem-solving theorizing relies, makes it possible to derive a statement of laws and regularities which appear of general applicability. Critical theory is critical in the sense that it stands apart from the prevailing order, and asks how that world came about. It does not just accept it: a world that exists has been made, and in the context of a weakening historical structure it can be made anew. Critical theory, unlike problem-solving theory, does not take institutions and social power relations for granted, but calls them into question by concerning itself with their origins, and whether and how they might be in process of changing. It is directed towards an appraisal of the very framework for action, the historical structure, which the problem-solving theory accepts as its parameters. Critical theory is a theory of history, in the sense that it is not just concerned about the politics of the past, but the continuing process of historical change. Problem-solving theory is not historical, it is a-historical, in the sense that it in effect posits a continuing present; it posits the continuity of the institutions of p ower relations which constitute the rules of the game which are assumed to be stable. The strength of the one is the weakness of the other: problem-solving theory can achieve great precision, when narrowing the scope of inquiry and presuming stability of the rules of the game, but in so doing, it can become an ideology supportive of the status quo. Critical theory sacrifices the precision that is possible with a circumscribed set of variables in order to comprehend a wider range of factors in comprehensive historical change. Cox believes that Critical theory does not propound remedies or make predictions about the emerging shape of things; world order for example. It attempts rather, by analysis of forces and trends, to discern possible futures and to point to the conflicts and contradictions in the existing world order that could move things towards one or other of the possible futures. In that sense it can be a guide for political choice and action. Cox sums up the salient features the purpose of the Critical Theory as follows: 1.  Action is never absolutely free but takes place within a framework for action with constitutes its problematic 2.  Not only action but also theory is shaped by the problematic 3.  The framework for action changes over time and a principal goal of critical theory is to understand these changes 4.  The framework has the form of an historical structure 5.  The framework is to be viewed from the bottom or from the outside in terms of the conflicts which arise within it and open the possibility of its transformation Having outlined his theoretical perspective, Cox explicates the role of historical structure in the formation of world orders, paying particular attention to hegemony. a structure is defined by its potentials in the form of material capabilities (technological, organizational, and natural resources) and ideas (historically conditioned intersubjective meanings and conflicting collective images of social order) institutionalization, which reflects and entrenches the power relations evident when particular institutions arose, is linked to the Gramscian concept of hegemony. In a hegemonic structure, the dominant interests secure power by co-opting the weak as they express their leadership in terms of universal or general interests these processes are not static; rather, they are limited totalities of a particular time and space which contain the dialectic possibility of change; that is, social forces, forms of state, and world orders can all be represented as a series of dominant and eme rgent rival structures = Social forces, hegemony, and imperialism interact as states mediate global and local social forces, establishing the political economy perspective in which power emerges from social forces and ideas, institutions and material capabilities are assessed on these three levels Cox then discusses the internationalization of the state as fragments of states evolved to become the primary units of interaction in developed states this represents the ascendancy of state ministries as independent actors, while in the periphery the power rests with international organizations. International production is engendering a global class structure which co-exists with national class structures, led by the transnational managerial class. Workers have also been fragmented into non-established and established, working respectively in international and national production, creating problems for social cohesion. Future world order prospects are presented in three hypothetical situations based on configurations of social forces with varying implications for the state system. Firstly, there is the possibility of a new hegemony based on internationalized production, suggesting a continued primacy of international capital and interests in both the core and the periphery. Conversely, a non-hegemonic world structure of conflicting power centers may emerge if neo-mercantilism rises in the core, creating a climate of cooperation with a particular core state for each periphery country. Finally, Cox does not rule out the possibility of a counter-hegemony based in the periphery, resulting in the termination of the core-periphery relationship which is entirely contingent on increased development in the periphery. Coxs strength lies primarily in his thorough assessment of historical examples without downplaying the role of history as neorealists do with their picking historical facts out of a quarry approach. Moreover, his re-orientation and reframing of international relations theory as a normative, emancipatory exercise establishes the discipline as a source of progress, rather than a cottage industry justifying the status quo. Critical theory emphasizes the political aspect of political science, reminding students and observers that each theorist (or diplomat) must contend with their own personal and cultural prejudices as human observers of politics cannot divorce themselves from their subject matter. Ultimately, critical theorys value rests with its reflexivity and hope for progress. Let us take an example to understand the applicability of this statement in real life scenario. Let us look at Climate change as a scenario and apply the statement and the theory relevance. With the example of climate change, the question is not to choose between problem-solving or critical theory. Problem solving theory is practical and necessary since it tells us how to proceed given certain conditions (for instance, the consequences to be expected from carbon generated from certain forms of behavior in terms of damage to the biosphere). Critical theory broadens the scope of inquiry by analyzing the forces favoring or opposing changing patterns of behavior. In the example of climate change, problem-solving theory asks how to support the big and ever increasing world population by industrial means yet with a kind of energy that is not going to pollute the planet. It requires a lot of innovative thought, has to mobilize huge reluctant and conservative social forces within a slow moving established order with vested interests in the political and industrial complex surrounding existing energy sources. Problem-solving theory gives opportunity to innovate and explore new forms of energy. Critical theory would take one step further and envisage a world order focused not just on humanity but on the whole of life, taking into account the web of relations in which humanity is only part in our world. Humans have to come to terms what it means to be part of the biosphere, and not just the dominant feature. In fact, it is a big problem of Western religion and modernist enlightenment thinking alike that nature is seen to be created in service of humans in the first, and is a force to be dominated in the second. Both Western religion and modernism have analytically disembedded humans from nature, turning nature into something to be dominated or an abstracted factor of production. To rethink this, to make humans part of nature, implies seeing humans as an entity with a responsibility vis-à  -vis the bigger world of which they are a part. Conclusion One has to question about the intent, the goal and the purposes of those who construct theories in specific historical situations. Broadly speaking, for any theory, there are two possible purposes to serve. One is for guiding the solving of problems posed within the particular context, the existing structure or the status quo. This leads to a problem-solving form of theory, which takes the existing context as given and seeks to make it work better. The other which is called critical theory is more reflective on the processes of change of historical structures, upon the transformation or challenges arising within the complex of forces constituting the existing historical structure, the existing common sense of reality. Critical thinking then contemplates the possibility of an alternative. We need to know the context in which theory is produced and used; and we need to know whether the aim of the user is to maintain the existing social order or to change it? Ever since, Coxs work has inspired critical students of IR and International Political Economy to think beyond the boundaries of conventional theorizing and to investigate the premises that underpin and link international politics and academic reflection on it. Recognized by many as one of the worlds most important thinkers in both IR and IPE, Cox assembles impressive and complex thinking stemming from history, philosophy, and geopolitics, to illuminate how politics can never be separated from economics, how theory is always linked to practice, and how material relations and ideas are inextricably intertwined to co-produce world orders.

Drink †Coffee Essay

Zagu Pearl Shake is a food stall business that offers cool flavored drink mixed with dark, spherical, chewy balls made from yam and tapioca called Pearls. Zagu was the first to introduce the â€Å"Pearl Drink† to the Philippine market. The First Zagu store was launched in April 1999. Zagu was pioneered by a young enterprising lady with a degree in Food Science from University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. Now, ZAGU has grown from a tiny kiosk to a current network of over 290 outlets nationwide. Zagu has also gained recognition locally through awards such as the National Choice Awards, and International recognition through our partner in Sydney, Australia. Zagu foods can be found in malls, supermarkets and roadside locations. Behind the success of every Zagu store is their professional management team and dedicated employees committed to putting the customers first and achieving excellence in everything. MISSION To provide the best quality, most innovative and reasonably priced products in the beverage industry. To be the leader in our industry attained by a well-planned expansion through retail outlets and wide product distribution. To continuously generate awareness, interest and desire for our products resulting in frequent / repeat purchases. To establish Zagu as a highly regarded international brand name.. VISION Our Company bears the vision of providing fun, deliciously appetizing, uniquely enchanting Food and beverage products while maintaining our commitment to uncompromised quality At economical rates with the heartening purpose to cater to society’s needs, tastes And preferences; rather than simply convincing our customers to try and like whatever products we Develop. What your will have as an authorized dealer? – Instant market – Additional source of income – Proprietary recipes, ingredients and procedures – Discount on purchases – Ongoing training and operational support – Marketing and advertising support – Exclusive product distribution – Contemporary design and decor package – Assistance with site selection – Customized operational system. What are the features of authorized dealership? – P270, 000 to 350,000 approximate investment package, and business will be fully operational – No franchise fee and no royalty fee – Will carry the well-established ZAGU trademark and logo – Special discounted price for purchases exclusive for authorized dealers only – Continuous marketing support through event participation, sponsorship and other marketing approach – High profile national presence – No defined territory. – Participation in events – Zagu standard uniform – Service crew training What exactly does ZAGU looks for in a business partner? – Dedicated – Hard working – Competent – Customer oriented What is the process involved in the application? It starts with completion of the initial questionnaire then followed by interviews, meeting, payment of deposit, filing-up of application form, submission of requirements, payment of package, signing of agreement, and lastly training. The â€Å"time frame† depends upon the mutual commitment and projected schedule of both parties. Approximately 45-60 days from the date of completion of requirements. To learn the steps in applying for ZAGU authorized dealership and their international business offers, please visit their official website at www. zagushakes. com. To contact ZAGU Foods Corporation – Sales Department, their telephone numbers are (632) 687-0140 / 687-4403 local 113-114.

Literature Review Internet Essay

A Literature Review on: An Exploration of Internet Programming Technologies for Learning Wayne State University CSC5750 Principles of Web Technology Susan Genden Susan Genden aw0809 Abstract This literature review offers a commentary on programming applications specifically in the area of emerging online technologies for learning. Included is a brief history on the growth of these instructional technologies. We explore four literature reviews that discuss intelligent tutors (used on a one-to-one basis and in a collaborative environment), and virtual reality environments. These publications show students working online successfully in a range of learning situations, where students become more active learners and exercise various choices in the process. Intelligent tutors can be designed to adapt to individual learning styles, and to other learner characteristics. Virtual reality environments offer unique immersive learning experiences. Programmers and researchers are working diligently to develop custom intelligent solutions to online learning needs. Evaluations presented show positive results to date. Obstacles still remain to development in terms of costs and other factors. Implementation and research continue. Introduction Internet technologies are changing our lives and our educational systems (Sheybani, & Javidi, 2004). This literature review presents an overview of four articles on the development of technologies used in online computer based education. The articles reflect continuing change as technology advances become pervasive. Theories about learning environments, and programming and hardware capabilities continue to change. People want educational opportunities that provide flexibility in terms of access, time management, and control (Hooper, & Reinartz, 2002). Education online will indeed become even more accessible, more convenient, and there will be learning environments tailored to the learner’s choices (Jalobeanu, 2003). Educators will have to make the extra effort to keep online learning interesting (Porter, 2005). Researchers are working hard to meet increased programming needs. There are at least two threads of development that lead to our current state in online instruction. One reflects the development of artificial intelligence or AI. The other area reflects instructional technology changes. A few milestones in AI include: in the 1950s, Norbert Weiner discussed feedback 2 Susan Genden aw0809 loops such as the way thermostats measure temperature changes and adjust their settings. He said that intelligent behavior worked in the same way, and might be simulated by computers (www. thinkquest. org, 2006). Newell, Simon, and Shaw created the first artificial intelligence program, Logic Theorist, in 1955-56 (Stottlerhenke Associates, Inc. , 2006). In the 1960s, Eliza, a computer for language between people and computers, was developed, and used intelligent agents (Piramuthu, 2005). The other area of development became apparent in the 1950s, when IBM research teams created computer assisted instructional programs for public schools. People had high expectations for educational use that were not attained. This low level of development continued though the 1960s, 1970s (the PLATO system) and the 1980s. Also in the 1980’s, Papert developed the Logo programming language and children learned to develop simple programming skills (LeFrancois, 2006). By the mid 1980’s, computer use in the schools had expanded to 40% of United States elementary schools and almost twice that in the high schools. By the mid 1990s, computers were integrated primarily in word processing or drill and practice exercises (Reiser, 2002). Since 1995, with the growth of expanded capabilities in multimedia, bandwidth, and programming technologies, the use of the Internet for instruction expanded and enrollments increased. By 1998, 78% of public four-year colleges and universities offered online classes (Reiser).

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